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Externalities as Benefits and Drawbacks of Energy Efficiency

This section illustrates the large number of externalities in energy efficiency, since EE provides external benefits or imposed external costs in addition to financial outcome and energy production. As suggested in Table 5.9, thepositive externalitiesare substantial. Table 5.9 Externalities of Energy Efficiency Energy efficiency disruption due to small size of power plants. (v) Lower investments in transmission and distribution (T&D) through energy savings and power stations located closer to customer loads. Externalities common to both RE and EE Energy efficiency (i) Pollution and waste produced by the production, distribution, and maintenance ofrenewable energyand energy efficiency equipment. Energy efficiency can also have negative externalities.39 EE is often promoted based on the assumption that the positive externalities outweigh the negative ones. Sometimes positive externalities can outweigh the lack of financial viability (in addition to any negative externalities).

Energy Consumption and CO2 Emissions in General

Energy consumption increases with economic development in most countries. From 1990 to 2006 the total primary energy consumption rose from 370 to 500 Exajoule (EJ, 1EJ 1018 J) or 35 14 , as shown in Figure 5. The energy consumption (500 EJ in 2006) has been satisfied by a relatively stable mix of energy sources since 1990.Fossil fuelslike petroleum, coal andnatural gasand electricity from nuclear and hydropower are the main energy sources. Otherrenewable energysources, here named as 'others' in the graphic, still only play a Figure 5 Primary energy consumption by region (data from 14 ). 600- - Figure 5 Primary energy consumption by region (data from 14 ). 600- - Figure 6 Primary energy consumption by fuel (data from 14 ). Figure 6 Primary energy consumption by fuel (data from 14 ). The emission of GHG, expressed as C02 e, is of course closely connected to the energy consumption and the mix of energy sources.

Renewable energy Policy Project Repp

Founded in 1995, theRenewable EnergyPolicy Project (REPP) is based in Washington, D.C. The organization researches strategies to make renewable sources competitive in energy markets and to stabilize carbon emissions. REPP supports reindus-trialization through the use of renewable technologies. It demonstrates that solar, wind, biomass, and other renewable sources can provide energy services at or below the cost of nonrenewables when structural barriers are removed. REPP works directly with states and firms to help them develop their renewable portfolio. The organization also provides expert information to consumers to improve energy efficiency and guide their transition to alternative energy options. To promote sales of renewable energy products and services, REPP created a buyer's guide and consumer directory for approximately 5,000 businesses. REPP has linked social and economic development to ecological concerns.

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Energy efficiency vs energy intensity

It is easy to confuse energy efficiency and energy intensity. Energy efficiency as we describe it above is a bottom-up view applied to individual activities. We describe energy intensity as a top-down or aggregated look at energy use in an economy. For consistency and clarity, the rest of this chapter will use the term efficiency for specific activities and intensity for aggregated energy use. However, the relationship between the two is far more complex and controversial than a simple aggregation. One measure in common usage todefine energy intensityis primary energy supply divided by GDP (E GDP). For most OECD countries, this is between 7 and 14 mega-joules per US dollar (MJ US ) with the US and Sweden in the upper part of this range and Japan in the lower range (Azar and Dowlatabadi, 1998). However, energy intensity is not simply the inverse of energy efficiency.

Energy Efficiency Conclusion

Certainly there are several reasons, a number of pros and cons to improve energy efficiency. Theoretically, with the magic formula ceteris paribus, the pros prevail and the experience from developed countries confirms this in practice as well. Transition economies have a chance to either improve or introduce energy efficiency, and despite the fact that the obstacles and negatives exist, EE has a great potential, which should be utilized. Whilst an increase in energy efficiency investment can generate economic and business opportunities, it cannot be done unless there is an effective institutional mechanism to provide financing as well as technological inputs. The chapter provides a broad picture of the benefits and drawbacks of energy efficiency investment programmes.

The Energy Efficiency Debate

There has been a long running debate between energy economists and energy analysts about various aspects of energy efficiency. One aspect is the rebound effect. Although definitions vary, this effect describes the following linkage the efficient use of energy leads to an increase in the use of energy. This may offset the savings in energy use achieved by the EE improvement partly.6 The theory of the rebound effect is rooted in the neoclassical It is suggested that in practice the rebound effect is not high enough to subtract the potential contributions of EE to the reduction of carbon emissions or the justification of EE policies.8 Nonetheless, some implications for policy follow from this. Energy-efficient technologies (EETs) may need to be reinforced by market instruments. A continued measurement and explaining effort should be put on to the rebound effect as economies are complex and changing.

The high energy efficiency paradigm

The 1980s saw the emergence of a new energy perspective, which may be termed a paradigm of high energy efficiency, as part of the process of sustainable economic development recommended by the report Our Common Future of the World Commission for Environment and Development (1987). This innovative concept of economic development requires that current economic actions must not impair the economic options of future generations, and therefore energy systems must be redesigned to reduce the use of exhaustible energy resources and limit emissions. An obvious consequence for energy policy is the need to move towards high energy efficiency. This in turn requires changes in economic incentives, particularly in the price system.

World Energy Consumption

Before considering each energy source in detail it is useful to compare their contributions to world energy consumption. This serves to keep their relative importance in perspective. Figures 1.3 and 1.4 and Table 1.1 provide some figures for past consumption and estimates for the future. The four main producers are coal, oil,natural gasand nuclear, with smaller contributions from other sources. Hydro is the next in importance but as it is limited by the number of suitable rivers its contribution remains almost constant and its relative contribution decreases. The contribution of the remaining sources is rather small. The 'traditional'renewable energysources such as wood, straw and dung (biomass) amounted to 0.9 GTOE in 1990. Modern biomass is growing special crops such as willow for subsequent burning. World energy consumption increased by 4.3 in 2004, with some countries increasing faster than others.

Why is energy efficiency important

Energy efficiency or how well the fuels are used. This chapter examines the role energy efficiency can play. We will argue that energy efficiency alone can not provide the solution to meet targets for abatement of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This is because the simultaneous and interacting effects of changes in global population, growth or shrinkage in the world economy, and the proportions of various fuels employed to meet energy needs, have a much greater potential to raise or lower GHG emissions. However, we will also argue that energy efficiency is an essential part of the solution to abating GHG emissions to meet global energy demands at a realistic cost. Changes in energy efficiency are affected by a host of technological, social, economic, and political factors.

International Energy Agency IEA

THE council of the Convention on theOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development国际能源署(IEA)建立在November 15, 1974. Initial member countries were Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The initial documents allowed for further nations to join the IEA as of 2007, 26 countries are members, from Europe, Asia, North America, and the South Pacific (Australia and New Zealand). Its French name is Agence Internationale de l'Energie. There was an oil crisis 1973-74 in which the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) refused to ship oil to nations that had supported Israel during the Yom Kippur war. Affected countries included the United States, Japan, and Western European nations.

Benefits of Energy Efficiency

Table 5.1 Positive Aspects of Energy Efficiency Table 5.1 Positive Aspects of Energy Efficiency reduced expenditure. In the long run, households enjoy the benefit of lower expenditures on energy, while increasing their comfort and well-being. For commercial and industrial sectors, using energy more efficiently reduces the cost of producing goods and services. This in turn can translate into lower production costs, higher output and more profits in the short term. The lower product price results in increased sales. This means that these sectors employ more workers to satisfy the increased demand for their products. The increased employment, of course, improves the performance of the local economy. The governments can also benefit from energy efficiency improvements as government-owned buildings can use less electricity, oil, gas and water. They can also use less electricity for street lighting.

Energy efficiency

Supplying power without using thefossil fuelsthat contribute to climate change is not easy.Wind farms, for example, produce far less electricity than fuel-burning power plants, and the wind does not blow all the time. But if we all used less energy, technologies such as wind andsolar powerwould be able to cope with a bigger proportion of the demand. We can help to achieve this by improving energy efficiency, or making sure things use less power to do the same job. This applies both to the people who design equipment, and to the people who use it. ENERGY RATING parts of the world are now labeled with their efficiency rating, so people can avoid buying energy-wasting designs. These labels for a washing machine in New Zealand show its energy consumption and efficiency, as well as itswater conservationrating. Used in our houses since being invented by Thomas Edison in 1879, normal incandescent bulbs are highly inefficient.

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Energy Awareness and Environmental Sustainability

Individual people and entire organizations are not likely to actively preserve energy or in general act in an environmental friendly way, unless they are aware of the issue and its problems. But what does being aware mean Even though there are many sophisticated definitions of awareness, just in the field of psychology for example, referring to consciousness, the Oxford Dictionary (fourth edition) offers a simple but very useful definition. It states that being aware means having knowledge or realizing something being well informed or interested in something. In case ofenergy awareness,这意味着有人了解能量itself, its constitution and properties as well as being informed about ways to reduce energy consumption. Further, the single person needs to realize the importance of energy conservation and should be motivated to act accordingly. Partanen-Hertell et al. 4 defines energyenvironmental awarenessas a combination of motivation, knowledge, and skills.

Melt Crystallization by Cooling

Distillation is energy-intensive for solutions that form isomers and azeotropes. In these cases, crystallization can provide better separation and a more energy efficient process. Melt crystallization is the process of separating the components of a liquid mixture by cooling until a quantity of crystallized solid is deposited from the liquid phase. Therefore, melt crystallization is often considered to be commercially attractive, compared with distillation, for the separation of close-boiling organic substances. The relatively low energy demand of the freezing process and high selectivity of crystallization are regarded as the main advantages of melt crystallization 17 . The operation at much lower temperatures than distillation is a further benefit, which makes it a very valuable operation for processing thermally unstable substances 18 . The heats of fusion for the majority of compounds with industrial importance are by the factor 0.2 to 0.5 lower than theheats of vaporization.

Efficiency Parameters of CCS

首先,过程本身,二氧化碳capture rate is an important characteristic value and design parameter. It describes how much of the CO 2 that would otherwise be emitted into the atmosphere is captured from the process and stored. In the three methods developed for CO2 capture from power plants, the capture rate is typically some 90 , possibly even 92 . A much higher capture rate can only be achieved with disproportionately large outlays. The CO2 capture rate takes no account of the energy consumption for capture, transport and storage, and, hence, ignores the CO2 emissions associated with such energy consumption. In assessing the overallCCS processchain, it is of course important to quantify the energy requirements. Depending on the capture process, the chief consumers are air separation, desorption of the CO - from the scrubbing solution, and any conversion steps.

Header Pressure and Temperature Control

大多数蒸汽系统有名义惠普、议员和LP的头ers. Typically, HP steam is 40bar, MP steam 10bar and LP steam 3bar. These pressures, chosen at the design stage, are not necessarily the most energy efficient. Rather than run at 'design' pressure, it is generally better to experiment by monitoring fuel consump

Realization and Results

It incorporates two essential elements, that is, quantification of the climate relevance of the manufactured product by means of the Climate Footprint and identification of savings potential through an 'Energy Efficiency Check'. The value ofBayer ClimateCheck derives from combining sustainability goals with the corporate-wide motivation to increase its efficiency, reduce costs, and implement innovative solutions. During the Energy Efficiency Check many potential measures to reduce energy consumption as well as CO2 emissions are identified in a structured and holistic approach. This involves optimization of utilities' consumption such as electricity, steam, cooling water, chilled water, fuels and compressed air as well as usage of raw materials and auxiliary materials. The energy efficiency of plant facilities, energy generation units and buildings are analyzed in detail. The project was initiated at the end of 2007 with a pilot phase.

Goal and Concept of the Bayer Climate Program

为了实现这些目标,拜耳启动(among other measures) the Bayer Climate Check as one of the lighthouse projects in the climate program. Within the Bayer Climate Check, which was developed by Bayer Technology Services, we systematically check in a detailed and comprehensive approach the energy efficiency of more than 100 plants at Bayer sites worldwide. These plants are responsible for more than 85 of the total energy consumption and the GHG emissions of all Bayer manufacturing plants. Above that, the new instrument is used to assess the climate impact of new investments that enable the sustainability targets to be achieved.

Carbon Pricing and Industry Exposure

Energy-intensity13 ' and trade-intensity14 ' are useful indicators for analyzing industry exposure to carbon pricing. Figure 2.1 examines the intensity indicators for a select number of industries in the USA. The figure illustrates that while some sectors such as lime face high energy consumption, the relatively low trade intensity limits exposure to carbon price absorption. Conversely, other sectors which are both energy and trade intensive, such as nitrogenousfertilizers, experience the highest exposure to climate policy measures. Based on this high-level analysis, the basic chemical industry is one of the most exposed sectors, considering the relatively high level of energy and trade intensity compared with other sectors.

Operational Improvements for Convective Dryers

The main operating parameters in convective dryers are the flowrate and inlet temperature of the hot gas stream. To improve the energy efficiency it is recommended that the air flowrate be reduced to a minimum and to increase the inlet temperature to the allowed maximum. A measure to achieve significant energy savings is the recirculation of a fraction of the exhaust gas stream back to the inlet air to the heater. However, due to the increased moisture content of the hot air entering the dryer, higher temperatures are required to achieve the same drying rate. In addition, the investment costs for the ductwork and the control of the air recirculation is often high. An additional measure to improve the energy efficiency of a convective dryer is to recover heat from the waste gas by means of heat exchangers. Usually the heat is used to preheat the inlet air (as illustrated in Figure 7.22) or the wet product feed, although it can also be used for other process streams.

Underground Storage of CO2

Despite its initially attractive properties,carbonationis only feasible at best for niche applications. The problems here lie in the logistics and in energy consumption. Each ton of CO2 needs about 7 tons of rock as reaction partner. This means that, for each ton of coal, an additional 10 to 20 tons ofsilicate rockmust be taken to the power plant and also hauled off again as carbonate rock, which is impossible to handle in logistical terms. In nature, the carbonation reaction is very slow, because of the low concentrations of CO2 in the air, the small specific contact surface between silicate rock and CO2 and the activation energy for the reaction. To obtain an acceptable reaction speed, various measures must be taken. Separating the CO2 produces a high CO2 , concentration. In addition, the CO2 is pressurized. The silicate rock is fine rain milled, so that the reaction surface is greatly enlarged, and heat is added to the reactor to accelerate the reaction.

Brainstorming Sessions

The first step in the idea generation phase is abrainstorming sessionwith the partners in the plant. Often we combine this brainstorming session with the Milestone 1 meeting described in Section 4.3.6) This procedure guarantees that the plant staff is involved at an early phase of the project. Operators on the plants know their plant very well and normally have many ideas for energy saving. It is important to involve them and accept these ideas if possible. Our experience shows that ideas generated by the operators have a better chance of being implemented in a sustainable manner than ideas imported from outside. Figure 4.8 Fields of energy savings. Significance of energy efficiency Figure 4.8 Fields of energy savings.

Definition of Scope and Task

大多数项目的第一步是明确definition of scope and tasks. The scope for an energy saving project can be a single plant or a chemical, petrochemical or pharmaceutical site. In many cases enterprises start a global program that consists of different sites worldwide. The advantage of a comprehensive program is that synergies between similar plants in different sites can be exploited. Best practices in energy saving measures are exchanged between the sites. Definition ofthe scope for single plants is quite simple The decision has to be taken as to whether or not logistic facilities such as tank farms will be included in the study. It is recommended that the project scope should be wider from the beginning and all auxiliary facilities belonging to the plant should be included, for the following reason. After the analysis phase, when the energy consumption in different facilities is determined, the project team will concentrate on the main consumers anyway.

Situation before the B ayer C limate C heck

In the last 20 years Bayer, like other chemical companies, has shown a strong commitment to reduce the GHG emissions of its production facilities. As a result, between 1990 and 2007 the company managed to reduce its direct and indirect GHG emissions by 37.2 or 4.5 million tons of CO2 equivalents. The total energy consumption of the Bayer group in 2007 equaled 91.7 Petajoule (that means 25.5 Terawatthours).

Business Perspectives

它花了很长时间的商业社区come to terms with energy efficiency. John B. Robinson argues that the relative novelty of the energy efficiency field together with its technical nature and the invisibility of energy caused a lack of good information on EETs, their potentials and costs.7 There are also other issues pertaining to the attitudes. They include the lack of recognition of non-market needs of consumers, and the focus of the private sector on environmental remediation rather than pollution prevention. Leaving aside that business goals and the measurement of their successes are complex and a matter of debate, it can be safely assumed that business establishments are profit-seeking organizations.

From megawatts to negawatts

第一要务,以确保能源transition in the best way is to reduce energy consumption. Reducing this consumption contributes to decreasing the dependence on energy supplies and to eliminating the corresponding CO2 emissions, together with all other environmental impacts resulting from the production and use of energy. Within this context, any investment in reducing energy consumption is most suitable for resolving all the problems previously mentioned. Each watt saved while keeping the same level of satisfaction for the final user represents what can be called a 'negawatt'1 . A negawatt has a higher value than an additional watt, because it can help to provide the same use or service, while avoiding the negative impact upon the environment of a supplementary production of energy. Replacing 'megawatts' by the production of 'nega-watts' is a most sensible choice, whenever it is possible. The efforts in this area are very sensitive to the price of energy.

Chemical Projects by Country

No change to process and related to emissions due to energy consumption No biomass crowding out Energy savings resulting from project activities that reduce caustic soda that would be purchased from in country production or imported from facilities located in Non-Annex 1 countries

The carbon content of the primary energy supply

In addition, a fuel such asnatural gasoffers high energy efficiencies, especially through the use of combined cycles. In this type of cycle, steam is produced by recovering heat from the exhaust gases of the gas turbine and used to drive a steam turbine. The energy efficiency of a natural gas combined cycle therefore reaches a value of nearly 60 , whereas the efficiency of the present coal-fired power stations is in the range of45-47 .

Advanced Process Control and Performance Monitoring

Increasing number of companies in the chemical industry recognize the significance of information as an important factor for optimizing their production. Beside classical automation technology, modern operating systems delivering realtime information about the actual status of the process attract more and more attention. Performance monitoring, based on the monitoring of selected variables in the process, so-called KPI (key performance indicators), plays a dominant role in increasing productivity and reduction of energy costs 36 . Energy efficiency improvements can be achieved by optimized design of the equipment or the entire process as well as by optimized operation. Optimized operation is achieved by improved automation and process control or directly by better manual operation. What can often be observed is that processes are operated at a comfort zone. The energytnfluencing operating parameters are not challenged and not load) dependent.

Task capture of C02 out of a mixture of C02 H20 N2

燃烧发电厂预计these three technologies will be implemented in the first generation of coal-fired power plants with carbon capture. Each has its specific properties and merits, so that parallel development of all three technologies is a sensible policy. In addition, building on these basic technologies, solutions are being investigated for the more distant future with a view to reducing the energy and cost outlays associated with carbon capture. In its basic concept,post-combustionC02 scrubbing is the simplest and most obvious technology for capturing the carbon from the power-plant process (see Figure 11.3). The idea is to target the flue-gas stream directly. Here, the C02 is selectively extracted from the waste-gas stream using a special scrubbing solution downstream of the power station. This is done in an absorber.

Development vs Environment

Presently, the cooperation efforts and analyses of climate change policies have been driven uniquely by concerns of the developed countries. From this perspective, related ancillary benefits in energy efficiency, and health impacts of local air pollution may be significant and promote actions, but they are only of secondary importance in that they may reduce the total costs of compliance with climate change commitments. Such an approach will have limited success in developing countries. The challenge then is to have integrated development and environmental policies so that the developing countries can stay on the path that minimizes the local and global environmental costs of relieving poverty, providing adequate food, supplying electricity to households and industry, and providing employment and transportation facilities consistent with the needs of the people of developing countries.

Brayton cycle

Compared with purchased power and the operation of on-site boilers to provide heat, cogeneration can be considered the biggest energy efficiency opportunity for any industry. Typically, a plant with cogeneration will require 25 less primary energy compared with separate heat and power supplies. This reduced fuel consumption is the main economical and environmental benefit of cogeneration, because a plant' s energy requirements are attained more efficiently with fewer emissions. The possibility of using residual products andwaste materialsas energy source, increases cost effectiveness while reducing the need for waste disposal or treatment. Cogeneration is certainly not a low cost energy efficiency option, especially considering capital costs, but it can be very cost effective, particularly in the case of a grassroots project or a system replacement. Accurate planning is necessary due to capital and operational costs, design and operational complexity of cogen-eration.

Power Cycles

In a simple approach, industry energy requirements can be summarized to heat and power, and as mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, they can be supplied by an external third party, a utility provider, that can sell them separately in various and suitable forms. This approach can simplify tremendously energy management of the plant, allowing owners to concentrate on the core business, but it may imply a huge lost opportunity for energy efficiency. Ideally, the most energy efficient path is to burn fuel using the highest possible temperature to convert chemical energy into mechanical energy in a gas turbine, an internal combustion engine or a back pressure steam turbine, using subsequently, relatively lower temperature waste heat from the primary driver to match process heat demands. But the decision to follow this ideal path depends on heat and power proportion and investment in the power cycle.

Dividing Wall Column

A three-component mixture can be separated by using a dividing wall column in only one apparatus as illustrated in Figure 7.15. In the middle part of the column a vertical wall is introduced, creating a feed and draw- off section in the column. The dividing wall permits the low-energy separation of the low and high boiling fractions in the feed section. The medium boiling fraction is concentrated in the draw-off part of the dividing wall column (www.montz.de ). An example Increasing oil prices andgrowing environmentalconcerns in recent years have been the major driver in the development of renewablebiofuels. The use of ethanol as a fuel has been growing exponentially around the world. Until now, most of thebioethanolproduction concepts are based on sugar and starch crops as feedstock. Bioethanol is produced by fermentation technology leading to a product concentration of approx. 10 ethanol in water.

离心泵ps

This work horse of the process industries offers one of the largest opportunities for energy saving. The best way to minimize pump energy consumption of an existing unit is to fit the maximumimpellersize for the casing and convert to variable frequency reluctance among engineers who have experienced the problem to apply VFD-thereby losing the energy saving opportunities. There is the potential for considerable energy saving when the system is applied to boiler feed pumps linked to steam drum level. For a long time, the 'rule ' was that the pump discharge pressure should be high enough to get water into the drum with the drum relief valves blowing. Pump discharge pressure in this case is therefore often 50 higher than necessary with VFD.

Distillation

230 7 Energy EfficientUnit Operationsand Processes 7.4.1 The separation principle of distillation is based on different volatilities of components in a boiling mixture. The methods for decreasing the energy consumption of distillation generally focus on the reduction of thereboiler杜热ty, because this represents the major energy requirement or on the recovery of the condensation heat at the condenser 1-3 . Electrical energy, which is necessary for pumping the process streams and cooling medium, is usually of minor importance compared with the heat demand 1 . Thereflux ratiois the key parameter that influences the energy consumption of a distillation column. The lower the reflux ratio, the lower the energy consumption of the column. However, to achieve the required purity of the distillate, a minimum reflux ratio is required, which is based on the thermodynamic properties of the mixture 2, 3 .

Common Utilities

Steam can be readily adapted to a wide range of temperatures by pressure adjustment, concerning the use of saturated steam. It is easy to distribute and control and its heat releasing ability can be used in cascade from higher to lower temperature. After its heat content is wasted, condensate can be recycled to the boiler and steam regenerated. It can be generated with high energy efficiency in boilers, either fired or wasted heat recovery ones. 356 10 Energy Efficient Utility Generation and Distribution 10.2.2

Introduction energy use in food processing

Theproduction of food, which sustains the human energy balance, requires a considerable and continuous supply of energy delivered from natural resources, principally in the form offossil fuels, such as coal, oil andnatural gas. For example, a typical energy requirement for the delivery of 1 J in the form of food consumes almost 10 J from natural resources. In the production of food for human consumption, the processing of food and drink requires a considerable part of this energy (see for example, Hufendiek and Klemes, 1997 Klemes et al., 1999a,b). The steady increase in the human population of the planet and its growing nutritional demands has produced an annual increase in the energy consumption of the food and drink industry of up to 40 in the last decade. The accelerating development of many countries with large populations, such as China and India, has resulted in a large increase in energy demands and a steady increase in energy cost.

Demetallation and Recovery of Fuel Oil from Hazardous Waste Oil

Considerations frequently dictate using chemical treatment as a viable alternative for the production of fuel oils. Although demulsifiers, flocculating aids, contaminant oxidizer and conditioning reagents (e.g. caustics) are available commercially, chemical treatment ofwaste oilshas not yet been demonstrated on a large scale. However, low capital and operating costs, high product yields, potential wide application, low energy treatments and especially low residue production make chemical treatment an attractive choice for waste oil processing facilities involved primarily in fuel oil production.

选择的工作ion factors tier 1 method

For the purposes of Tier 1 emission calculations, it is assumed that the default fuel for production of Direct Reduced Iron isnatural gas. Natural gas-based processes account for the vast majority of installed direct reduced iron (DRI) production capacity worldwide, with 63 percent of that capacity being the MIDREX process. Fuel consumption for production of direct reduced iron using the MIDREX process is typically 10.5 - 14.5 GJ natural gas metric tonne solid DRI assuming 100 percent lump iron ore operation. Fuel consumption for production of hot briquetted iron from iron fines was reported to be 12.5 GJ natural gas per tonne of product for the FINMET process and 14 GJ natural gas per tonne of product for the CIRCORED process. The default energy consumption of 12.5 GJ natural gas per tonne of DRI produced and the defaultcarbon content of natural gasof 15.3 kg carbon per GJ natural gas correspond to aCO2 emission factorof 191.3 kg carbon per tonne DRI produced (0.

Solar Power Generation Systems

Even though they are conceptually similar, large-scale solar systems differ from small-scale systems through the fact that they use a central power plant. In large systems, a field of collectors is used to capture thesolar energy, which is transmitted by means of a heat transfer fluid to a standard power plant. In small-scale systems every individual unit is equipped with a low-power heat engine, usually placed in the focal point of a solar concentrator, close to the solar receiver. Fig 4.3 Schematic of 30 MW hybrid solar trough power plant (modified from Kearney and Miller, 1988). Fig 4.3 Schematic of 30 MW hybrid solar trough power plant (modified from Kearney and Miller, 1988). To date, most of the large-scale solar plants are hybridized with afossil fuel(gas coal) burning system to keep the flow of power relatively constant.

选择的工作ion factors Aaf

Emissions of CO2 from steam cracking for ethylene production may be estimated using the feedstock-specific emission factors in Table 3.14 and activity data for the amount of ethylene produced from the steam cracking processes. Separate emission factors are provided in Table 3.14 for the CO2 emissions from feedstock consumption and from supplemental energy consumption in the steam cracking process. However, the CO2 emissions from both feedstock consumption and supplemental energy consumption are to be reported as Industrial Process emissions under the reporting convention discussed above. The default emission factors are derived from plant-specific data for steam crackers operating in Western Europe. The emission factors may be adjusted by applying the default geographic adjustment factors in Table 3.15 to account for differences in the energy efficiency of steam cracking units among various countries and regions. Note that as indicated in Table 3.

Into a Less Peopled Less Hostile Planet

Tangible steps to reduce any of these factors will lessen their product and help produce a more hospitable future for biodiversity. A current example that integrates all three factors is the drive to produce biofuel (T) to satisfy the expanding energy consumption (A) of a growing population (P). Uncheckedbiofuel productionhas the potential to destroy all moist-tropical biodiversity that lacks conservation status. Biologically impoverished monocultures of oil palm, soybeans, and sugarcane forbiodieseland ethanol are devouring swaths of Brazilian Amazon and Cerrado, Indonesian, and Malaysian tropical rainforests and other vast reservoirs of biodiversity (Fearnside, 2001 Klink and Machado, 2005). However, the production ofbiofuelsfrom native grassland perennials on agriculturally degraded lands has the potential to reduce carbon emissions without displacing food production or converting native habitats (Tilman et al. , 2006).

Acid Rain And Deposition

虽然一些研究是进行酸存贷款on in the ensuing years, it was not until the 1950s and 1960s that E. Gorham, conducting research in England and Canada, built the major foundations for our present understanding of the causes of acid precipitation and its impact on aquatic ecosystems. However, it took the work of a Swedish scientist, S. Oden, in the 1960s, to arouse the scientific community and general public to engage in the debate about acid deposition. One newspaper account described his ideas about an insidious chemical war among the nations of Europe. Thus, by the 1970s, it was finally realized that Eastern Europe, Germany, Scandinavia, Canada, and the United States were experiencing widespread damage to forests and lakes as well as damage to stone and metal buildings and other structures fromacid rain. In Germany, the term Waldsterben (forest death) was coined.

Steam Electric Power Generation Industry

The steam electric power generation industry is defined as those establishments primarily engaged in the steam generation of electrical energy for distribution and sale. Those establishments produce electricity primarily from a process utilizing fossil-type fuel (coal, oil, or gas) or nuclear fuel in conjunction with a thermal cycle employing the steam-water systemas the thermodynamic medium. The industry does not include steam electric power plants in industrial, commercial, or other facilities. The industry in the United States falls under two Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Codes SIC 4911 and SIC 4931. In the operation of a power plant, combustion offossil fuels煤炭石油或天然气供应的热量产生蒸汽,which is used to generate mechanical energy in a turbine. This energy is subsequently converted by a generator to electricity. Nuclear fuels, currently uranium, are used in a similar cycle except that the heat is supplied by nuclear fusion wastewater discharge.

Buying our way out of trouble

Promoters of the voluntary offset markets never tire of pointing out they precede the regulatory markets. The first such transaction was in 1989 when AES, a US electricity company, invested in a forestry plantation (of pine and eucalyptus) in Guatemala to offset the emissions from its new coal-fired power plant in Connecticut. But most of these markets emerged during the 1990s. 11 myclimate, Salido Kecil Power plant Project Design Document. See http www . accessed 6 November 2007. But demonstrating additionality is much more difficult in many other cases. For example, Climate Care developed a project in the Guguletu township near Cape Town in South Africa. They distributed 10,000 compact fluorescent lightbulbs (CFL) in order to increase the energy efficiency of consumption in the township. But it turned out that Eskom, the electricity company, was itself distributing CFL bulbs free in the township.

Summary of Key Federal Environmental Statutes Enacted Since 19701

Congress amended earlier air quality legislation with the Clean Air Act in 1972. These requirements, combined with amendments enacted in 1977 and 1990, cover a very broad array of programs and requirements, including the establishment of ambient air quality standards and the development of state implementation plans for a variety of pollutants, national emissions standards for stationary sources of hazardous pollutants, requirements for ozone protection, motor vehicle emission and fuel standards, and the prevention of significant deterioration of air quality.

Geoengineering Strategy Increasing the Emissivity of the Atmosphere by Direct GHG Capture

The capture of CO2 at its point of emission - typically at very large combustion sources such as coal-fired power plants - is a strategy under serious consideration by energy systems analysts as a means of reducing further GHG emissions, while allowing the continued use offossil fuel(Princiotta, this book). However, many anthropogenic sources of CO2 exist that are not amenable to carbon capture and storage (CCS), such as fossil-fueled mobile sources, and those emissions related to forest clearing and agriculture. In addition to its limitations concerning the types of sources it can effectively control, carbon capture at the point of emission does not affect the existing excess concentrations of anthropogenic CO2 in the atmosphere. Several geoengineering proposals offer approaches for reducing overall atmospheric CO2 concentrations.

Integration and Adaptation Definition

Firstly, adaptation is defined broadly by IPCC (2001) as adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities . Despite a vast amount of time spent in IPCC discussions on definitions, the present still fails to make adequate provision for those situations where a seemingly successful adjustment becomes a detrimental maladaptation only over time. This may include ther-moregulatory functions such as active energy usage and air conditioning, which ultimately may not prove to moderate harm or be beneficial (Auliciems 1989 Auliciems and de Dear 1998 Auliciems and Szokolay 1998).

Applications of electrodialysis

The production ofpotable waterfrom brackish water is presently the largest single application ofelectrodialysis. In brackish water desalination, electro-dialysis competes directly with reverse osmosis. However, in a certain range of feedwatersalt composition, electrodialysis has a clear economic advantage over other desalination processes. Electrodialysis is mainly used in small- to medium-sized plants with capacities of less than a few 100 m3 per day to more than 20,000 m3 per day with a brackish water salinity of 10005000 mgL-1 total dissolved solids. Since in electrodialysis both the energy consumption and the required membrane area increase with increasing feedwater concentration, reverse osmosis is considered to have an economic advantage for the desalination of water with total dissolved salts in excess of 10,000 mgL-1 .

Renewable energy options for the future

Wind farmscan also be placed offshore in appropriate locations however, they can interfere with radar systems so can pose a risk to national security if placed inappropriately. Additionally, the wind is not always predictable or reliable, sowind powerneeds to have a storage system or be built in conjunction with other energy systems. Some communities consider wind farms to be an eyesore, and some are said to generate low-frequency noise that affects some people and animals.

Reference Approach vs Sectoral Approach

Large statistical differences between the energy supply and the energy consumption in the basic energy data. Statistical differences arise from the collection of data from different parts of the fuel flow from its supply origins to the various stages of downstream conversion and use. They are a normal part of a fuel balance. Large random statistical differences must always be examined to determine the reason for the difference, but equally importantly smaller statistical differences which systematically show an excess of supply over demand (or vice versa) should be pursued.

Methodology For Impact Assessment Of Climate Change Scenarios

At the same time, concerns raised by atmospheric scientists about greenhouse gas emissions has led to international negotiations to establish a global strategy to reduce emissions. The main policy instrument, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has been ratified by more than 150 countries, and the emission targets for six greenhouse gases have been tentatively established for more than 30 industrialized countries by a recent agreement known as the Kyoto Protocol (negotiated in December, 1997, but not yet ratified). Critics of this agreement have argued that these targets will cause severe economic losses to most of these countries because, in their view, economic growth is directly linked to growth in energy consumption and hence increased greenhouse gas emissions.

Membrane Processes for Advanced Wastewater Treatment

As described in Chapter 3,pervaporationis an energy-efficient technology that has been used commercially for alcohol dehydration, VOC removal fromcontaminated water, and hydrocarbon separations. The driving force of pervaporation processes is the chemical potential difference across the membrane between the feed and permeate the performance of pervapora-tion is not restricted by vapor-liquid equilibrium like distillation (Dutta et al., 1996). Recently, it has been shown to be a valuable tool for value-added wastewater treatment through flavor and aroma recovery from food processing by-products (e.g., Karlsson and Tragardh, 1996 Peng and Liu, 2003c). The application of pervaporation in VOC removal has also been intensively researched (e.g., Jiang et al., 1997 Hitchens et al., 2001 Vane et al., 1999, 2001a Peng and Liu, 2003a, 2003b Liu and Peng 2006). These VOC removal research programs have led to several successful field demonstrations (e.g., Alvarez et al., 2001 Vane et al.

Postcombustion capture systems 331 Introduction

Current anthropogenic CO2 emissions from stationary sources come mostly from combustion systems such as power plants, Flue gases or stack gases found in combustion systems are usually at atmospheric pressure. Because of the low pressure, the large presence of nitrogen from air and the large scale of the units, huge flows of gases are generated, the largest example of which may be the stack emissions coming from anatural gascombined cycle power plant having a maximum capacity of around 5 million normal m3 h-1 . CO2 contents of flue gases vary depending on the type of fuel used (between 3 for a natural gas combined cycle to less than 15 by volume for a coal-fired combustion plant See Table 2.1). In principle post-combustion capture systems can be applied to flue gases produced from the combustion of any type of fuel. However, the impurities in the fuel are very important for the design and costing of the complete plant (Rao and Rubin, 2002).

Global Environmental Challenges and the Reduction of Adverse Impacts in Antarctica

Development in industrialised countries (e.g.fossil fuelenergy, increased mining and smelting activities, intensive agriculture and clearing of forests). If the reduction of poverty and the improvement of the standard of living in poor countries of the Southern Hemisphere are pursued through the same industrial, agricultural and energy policies which produced economical growth in a limited number of countries (mostly in the Northern Hemisphere), the Southern Ocean and Antarctica will probably be affected by many of the environmental problems which currently afflict Arctic ecosystems. Having burdened the global environment, rich countries now have the moral responsibility to assist poorer southern nations in addressing environmental threats, through financial aid and the transfer of new technologies and know-how.

Rotating Biological Contactors RBC

Increasingly stringent requirements for the removal of organic andinorganic substancesfrom wastewater have necessitated the development of innovative, cost-effective wastewater treatment alternatives in recent years. The aerobicrotating biological contactor(RBC) is one of the biological processes for the treatment of organic wastewater. It is another type of attached growth process that combines advantages of biological fixed-film (shorthydraulic retention time, high biomass concentration, low energy cost, easy operation, and insensitivity to toxic substance shock loads), and partial stir. Therefore the aerobic RBC reactor is widely employed to treat both domestic and industrial wastewater 16-18 . Aschematic diagramof the rotating biological contactor (RBC) unit is shown in Fig. 13 it consists of closely spaced discs mounted on a common horizontal shaft, partially submerged in a semicircular tank receiving wastewater.

Rationale physical carbon arbitrage

Capturing CO2 from the air at a concentration of 0.04 may seem absurd given that after roughly two decades of research and development there are still no full scale commercial power plants with CO2 capture - for which the exhaust gas CO2 concentrations are greater than 10 - and only a handful of large commercial pilots appear to have financing in place to move ahead. The basic thermodynamics and physics suggest that capturing CO2 from the air need not be much harder thanpost-combustioncapture from a power plant (Section 6.2).

Applications of bipolar membrane electrodialysis

Lower energy consumption The largest potential application ofbipolar membraneelectrodialysisis the production of acids and bases from the corresponding salts. Presently, caustic soda is produced as a coproduct with chlorine by electrolysis. Utilizing bipolar membrane electrodialysis and producing caustic soda and an acid instead of chlorine from the corresponding salts is an interesting alternative to the conventional chlorine alkaline electrolysis because of lower energy consumption. However, the process is impaired by poor membrane stability and insufficient permselectivity at high ion concentrations, resulting in substantial product salt contamination, low current utilization, and short membrane life under operating conditions. Problemfree operation of the bipolar membrane electrodialysis also requires a substantial pretreatment of the salt solution.

Biomass Growth Substrate Utilization and Yield

Because of the central role that Y plays in the relationship between biomass growth and substrate utilization, it is an intrinsic characteristic. Consequently, a clear understanding of the factors that can influence its magnitude is important. The development of such an understanding requires consideration of the energetics of microbial growth, including energy conservation and energy requirements for synthesis.

Accounting for feedstock and reductant uses of fossil fuels and their CO2 emissions

使用非能源之间使用不同的术语countries and sources of energy statistics (Patel, 1999). For example, the three categories given above are often not grouped together as non-energy use in energy statistics. In most energy statistics, fuel inputs of reductants to blast furnaces are not included but accounted for as inputs to a fuel conversion activity transforming coke and other inputs to blast furnace gas (see below).The International Energy Agency(IEA) follows this approach. It also reports the feedstock category as a memo item under energy use within the chemicals branch of industry whereas supplies of non-energy products as defined above are reported under 'non-energy use'. In contrast, in many national energy statistics, the total of the three categories (usually without blast furnaces) is reported as one single category called non-energy use.

Energy Needs Of India

印度的电力行业正面临着严重的困难ms, as the gap between demand and supply has been increasing annually by about 8 . The shortage of power during the Ninth Five Year Plan period (1997-2002) in India is estimated to be about 55000 MW (MegaWatt). Coal is one of the primary energy resources, accounting for about 67 of the total commercial energy consumption in the country. Thermal power plants at present account for 73 of the total power generation in India hydroelectric power plants contribute 25 and the remaining 2 comes from nuclear plants. Of the total 394 BkWh (Billion kiloWatt hour) of power generated in the country during the year 1996-1997 (Fig. 2), 265 BkWh was generated by coal burning (about 163 Mt of coal was burned to produce this power). Consumption offossil fuelsin India has also increased abruptly during the last few years (Fig. 3).

Strategies For Inland Brine Disposal Zld And Fluidized Bed Crystallizers

今天许多ZLD应用操作对待战俘er plant cooling water with thermal desalination and or evaporation ponds to gain maximum energy use of the heated water. Thermal desalination (distillation) has been practiced for over 30 years, particularly in the Middle East, and it is a mature technology unlikely to result in any major technological improvements. Although there have been a few design innovations over the years to optimize energy efficiency, thermal

Wet Flue Gas Cleaning Blowdown Subcategory

Wastewater produced by asteam electricpower plant can result from a number of operations at the site. Many wastewaters are discharged more or less continuously as long as the plant is operating. These include wastewaters from the following sources coolingwater systems, ash handling systems, wet-scrubber air pollution control systems, andboiler blowdown. Some wastes are produced at regular intervals, as inwater treatmentoperations that include a cleaning or regenerative step as part of their cycle (ion exchange, filtration, clarification, evaporation). Other wastes are also produced intermittently but are generally associated with either the shutdown or startup of a boiler or generating unit such as duringboiler cleaning(水)、锅炉清洗(火),air preheatercleaning, cooling tower basin cleaning, and cleaning of miscellaneous small equipment. Additional wastes exist that are essentially unrelated to production. These depend on meteorological or other factors.

Oxidation with Ozone and Hydrogen Peroxide

The efficiency of hydrogen peroxide oxidation enhanced by photolysis depends on the energy of emitted radiation. However, energy consumption depends on the kind of the lamps applied. With low-pressure lamps, energy consumption varies from 100 to 200 kWh kg COD, and for high-pressure lamps, the amounts range from 400 to 700 kWh kg CODremoved. Because only high-pressure lamps can be used on a technical scale for landfill leachate treatment, the high consumption of energy is a drawback of this application method 67,72 .

The Telese area Southern Italy

Earthquakes have occurred several times in the past. At the present, the area is characterised by low-energy sequences (Mdmax 4.1) but not much is known about the tectonic structures responsible for such seismicity (Vilardo et al., 2003). The Sannio-Matese area is located in the frontal portion of the Apenninefold and thrust belts, at the junction between the northern and southern subsidiary arcs. At this location different tectonic styles are superimposed as a result of Neogene and Quaternary thrust, strike-slip and extensional tectonics (Di Bucci, 1995 Corrado et al., 1997). Twogeological unitscharacterise the Sannio-Matese area

Outcomes And Future Considerations

The pilot, bench-scale, and desktop studies undertaken for the Las Vegas Valley indicate that desalination, while technically feasible, is costly. The initial estimates were, at best, 4.73 kgaP1 with substantial water loss involved. The follow-up study indicated that an optimized ZLD system could be set in operation at a cost of 4.51 kgaP1 with improved water recovery and reduced energy consumption. However, these costs still compare unfavorably to production costs of less than 1.23 kgaP1 for water from other sources. As such, one must carefully weigh the costs and benefits of implementing a desalination system, especially in inland settings where high recovery and adequate means forbrine disposalt是最重要的o success.

Emission Characteristics of Diesel Engine Powered Cogeneration Systems

The industrial sector is a major electricity consumer. The growth rate of electricity demand is high especially in the developing countries and a continuous growth is anticipated for coming years. Many governments revise their energy policy introducing legislative and economic incentives to encourage private participation in the power generation investments. Generally, a favorable economic environment is created for the industries that make use of energy conservation, and cogeneration is an effective method of achieving this. Unfortunately power facilities have the potential of environmental pollution by the emission ofharmful gasesand other hazardous components. Power plants and cogeneration facilities emit some undesirable content in exhaust gases including solid particles, and these emissions, depending on their level, can be very harmful for human beings and other organisms (Frangopoulos, 1993 EPA, 2000). Air pollution is becoming a great environmental concern in Turkey.

An Alternative Analysis The Forgotten Method Of Dimensional Analysis

The eddies are entrained by the flow and, at a certain distance from the particle, they disappear while being replaced by new eddies. Due to eddy formation and their breaking away from the particle, a low-pressure zone forms at the front of the particle. Hence, as described earlier, a pressure gradient is formed between the front and rear of the particle. This gradient is responsible primarily for the resistance to particle motion in the medium. The amount of this resistance depends on the energy expended toward eddy formation the more intensive this formation, the greater the energy consumption and, hence, the greater the resistance force. The inertia forces generated by eddies play an important role. They are characterized by the mass and velocity of the fluid relative to the particle.

Volume Of Emissions In Carbon Black Processes

The lamp black process involves open burning ofcarbon black feedstockin shallow pans. Data are not readily available concerning feedstock yield and energy consumption for the lamp black process. This process represents an insignificant percentage of worldwidecarbon black production.

Current status of waste problems faced by the dairy industry

投入产出的比较形式的基础生活e cycle assessment of dairy processing conducted by a number of researchers (Cederberg & Mattsson 2000 Berlin 2002 Hogaas-Eide 2002 Nicol 2004). These studies have identified the key issues that the dairy industry needs to address to ensure the environmental sustainability of the industry based on water and energy usage, and waste disposal. Large dairy processing plants consume significant amounts of energy in the processing, packaging and transport of dairy products. Electricity is used for the operation of machinery, refrigeration, ventilation, lighting and the production of compressed air. As with water consumption, the use of energy for cooling and refrigeration is important for ensuring good keeping quality of dairy products. Storage temperatures are often specified by regulation. Thermal energy, in the form of steam, is used for heating and cleaning.

The Growth Of Environmental Awareness

One of the worst anthropogenic disasters was the explosion at the nuclear power plant in Chernobyl, USSR, on April 26, 1986. A reactor exploded during a failed cooling system test and ignited a massive fire that burned steadily for 10 days. The accident released radioactivity 400 times more intense than that of the Hiroshima bomb in World War II. The accident affected a huge area the plume drifted over Europe,

Oxyfuel indirect heating steam cycle

Pulverized coal fired boiler, hotrecycling前的烟气二氧化碳净化和排版ression also reduces the size of all unit operations in the stream leaving the boiler to 1 5 that of similar equipment deployed in conventional air blown combustion systems (Chatel-Pelage et al., 2003). Use of a low temperature gas purification step prior to CO2 compression (see Section 3.4.2.2) will also eliminate the need to deploy conventional selective catalytic reduction for NOx removal and flue gas desulphurization to purify the gas, a practice typically adopted in conventional air-blown combustion processes (see Figure 3.3). The overall reduction in flow volumes, equipment scale and simplification of gas purification steps will thus have the benefit of reducing both capital and operating costs of equipment deployed for combustion, heat transfer and final gas purification in process and power plant applications (Marin et al., 2003). Figure 3.

Florida International university

Ricane-related loss reduction by conducting research, such as studies on theeffects of storm-surge along Florida's long and highly-developed coastline. IHR scientists at FIU's Laboratory for Coastal Research measure changes in shoreline and beaches in response to short-term events such as hurricanes and also over longer periods of time. At other FIU laboratories, satellite images are combined with computer animation to create simulations and interactive visuals for training and outreach. Research is also being done to develop energy-efficient equipment andsolar energypowered buildings. With the price of weather and storm-related events on the increase, researchers are modeling insurance costs under different scenarios of damage, finding ways to providing incentives for people of protect their homes, and developing new wind-resistant structures for homes and businesses.

Pilot testing and upscaling1

Another interesting characteristic is that after making a survey of the rivers running into the ocean worldwide, one found that these sites usually also have either settlements or industry, and mostly both. This means that the consumer of the electricity produced by osmotic power will be just next door to the power plant. When reflecting on the situation that most new sources ofrenewable energy, such as wind, wave, and so on, usually have huge challenges and significant investments related to the connection of the power generation device to the grid, this adds another advantage for the generation of osmotic power as a contribution to the total energy mix. After the start-up, operation, and further testing the experience gained will be based on both operational changes as well as changes to the system and replacement of parts. This is in order to increase the efficiency and optimize the power generation.

Secondary Treatment Biological

Biological treatment systems are living systems that rely on mixed biological cultures to break down waste organics and remove organic matter from the solution. A biological waste treatment system provides an artificial and controlled environment suitable for the growth of microorganisms that can stabilize the organic pollutants in the wastewater before it is discharged into the surface waters. These living microorganisms, including bacteria and protozoa, consume the organic pollutants as food. They metabolize the biodegradable organics, converting them into carbon dioxide, water, and energy. The primary use of energy is for synthesis. The maximum rate of synthesis occurs simultaneously with the maximum rate of energy yield (maximum rate of metabolism). Aerobic metabolism requires oxygen for the processes of metabolism and synthesis. In anaerobic metabolism, the metabolism and synthesis take place in the absence of oxygen.

Result and Discussion

Bigadic geothermal sources are mainly utilized for district heating, although the source temperature is suitable for the absorption cooling. That is why in this study, geothermal energy-assisted absorption cooling and its environmental effects on global warming are investigated. It is known that electricity usage has an indirect effect on air pollution. For each kWh of electricity production, the power plants emit 315-915 g of CQ 0.04 and 3.15 g of SO2 , respectively. Figure. 7.6 shows the potential of CO2 , SO2 , and NOx emissions reduction for a house in summer season. Environmental benefits of the Bigadic GDHS for heating season are investigated and given as follows (i) it is obtained that maximum heating demand for a total of 2200 dwellings is 15.25 MW and the energy savings achieved with this system amounts to 3876.24 tons of oil equivalent (TQE) per year (1 TQE is equal to 8, 000, 000 kcal) (ii) the amount of emissions of CO2 and SO2 are reduced drastically.

The Main Advantages of Sludge Drying Beds

The main advantages ofsludge drying bedsare low capital cost, low energy consumption, low to no chemical consumption, low operator skill and attention required, less sensitivity to sludge variability, and higher cake solids content than that of most mechanical methods. Disadvantages include large space requirements, the need for priorsludge stabilization, consideration of climatic effects, odor potential, and the fact that sludge removal is usually labor intensive. Sludge drying beds may be classified as (1) conventional sand, (2) paved, (3) artificial media, and (4) vacuum assisted.

Building Materials Their Embodied Energy and Greenhouse Gas Impact

Lippke et al. 20 found that for a typical U.S. home, embodied energy is small but significant compared to energy used to operate the home over its lifetime. Embodied energy in materials is about 15 , and operating energy is about 85 of the total energy used over the lifetime of a typical U.S. home. Buildings with high-energy efficiency have a greater percentage of total energy embodied in materials. For example, Thormark 21 found that for energy-efficient apartment housing in Sweden, embodied energy is about 45 of total energy over a life span of 50 years. Thormark found that about 40 of embodied energy can be recovered throughrecyclingat the end of the building's lifecycle, if buildings are designed with recycling potential in mind. Embodied energy for a building material may vary depending on extraction processes, production methods, transportation distances, and other variables.

Solar Energy Industries Association SEIA

Thesolar energyIndustry Association (SEIA) is an American trade association for the solar industry, working to expand markets, strengthen and develop research, and improve education for the employment of solar energy. SEIA is affiliated with the PVNow coalition ofphotovoltaiccompanies, which aims to expand the North American-distributed, grid-connected photovoltaic market opportunities and eliminate market barriers. They are pursuing this goal through lobbying key state legislatures, utility rate-making authorities, and other state energy policymaking agencies. SEIA represents over 700 companies and 20,000 employees in the U.S. energy sector. Rhone Resch is the president of SEIA. Together with his organization, he applauded the U.S. Congress and President George W. Bush for producing the strongest national policy forsolar powersince the 1980s.

Carbon Capture and Storage

Before CO2 gas can be sequestered from power plants and other point sources, it must be captured as a relatively pure gas. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, on a mass basis, CO2 is the 19th-largest commodity chemical in the United States, and it is routinely separated and captured as a by-product from industrial processes such as synthetic ammonia production and limestone calcinations. Current technology captures roughly 85-95 percent of the CO2 processed in a capture plant. A power plant that has a CCS system (with an access to a geological or ocean storage) uses approximately 10-40 percent more energy than a plant of equivalent output without CCS (the extra energy is for the capture and compression of CO2 ). The final result with a CCS is that there is a reduction of CO2 emissions to the atmosphere by 80-90 percent compared to a plant without CCS.

Nitrous oxide from nitric acid production

In principle there are three different ways to achieve this goal, all of which are based on the use of various ceramic catalysts. These may be placed at different points in a nitric acid plant, leading to various advantages and drawbacks of the respective measure. In the US thenitric acid industrycurrently controls N2 O emissions by using both non-selective catalytic reduction (NSCR) and SCR technologies to reduce N2 O to molecular nitrogen. While NSCR is more effective than SCR at controlling N2 O, these units are not generally preferred in today's plants because of high energy costs and associated high gas temperatures.

Classification of Ocean Energy Conversion Technologies

There are abundant publications with pictures of wave, tidal and otherwater currentdevices, almost all of which are conceptual and a few undergoing full-scale open-ocean deployments. Rather than duplicate these papers with pictures of devices, the reader is directed to the publications of the Executive Committee of the Ocean Energy Systems Implementing Agreement (OES-IA) and particularly the 2008 Annual Report (Brito-Melo and Bhuyan 2009). Further information on the range of wave, tidal and water current technologies can be found in the Marine and Hydrokinetic Technology Database of the United States Department of Energy (US DoE 2008). Fig. 26.8 Operational principles of a PRO power plant. (Skramest0 and Skilhagen 2009) Fig. 26.8 Operational principles of a PRO power plant. (Skramest0 and Skilhagen 2009)

Types Of Carbon Sequestration

According to the EPA In terms of global warming impact, one unit of CO2 released from a car's tailpipe has the same effect as one unit of CO2 released from aburning forest. Likewise, CO2 removed from the atmosphere through tree planting can have the same benefit as avoiding an equivalent amount of CO2 released from a power plant. In carbon sequestration, the main goal is to prevent CO2 emissions from power plants and industrial facilities from entering the atmosphere by separating and capturing the emissions and then securing and storing the CO2 on a long-term basis.

Profit Infra Marginal Electricity Producer Curve Integration Of Cost

Other possible forms of lock-in deserve greater consideration, in particular with respect to energy efficiency improvements. Some energy efficiency measures need to be undertaken at a given time - for example, when new plants or buildings are designed and built - or risk costing much more at a later stage. Accepting too large an investment in renewable technologies while neglecting timely energy-efficiency programmes clearly runs the risk of locking in societies' too-high energy consumption patterns, with detrimental long-term implications for bothenergy securityand climate protection. This can best be observed withwind power, which has recently become a significant player in some European countries. At about the same time, their electricity markets underwent deregulation. In deregulated markets, the price is set where supply and demand curves meet. The demand for electricity is relatively inelastic - it does not change much with the price.

International solar Energy society IsEs

The ISES supports a variety of projects. The Solar Academy training program focuses on the integration ofsolar technologiesinto building design, with a focus onrenewable energy, conservation, and efficiency. The Solar Cities initiative aims to promote renewable energy use in long-term planning processes. The project highlights solar communities cities or towns that make a commitment to emissions reduction targets, renewable energy sources, and energy efficiency. sEE ALso Alternative Energy,Solar EnergyEfficiencySolar Energy Industries Association(SEIA).

From Direct Losses to Indirect Losses

Energy costs, insurance company bankruptcy, larger public deficit, or housing prices that have second-order consequences on consumption) (ii) by responses to the shock (e.g., loss of confidence, change in expectations,indirect consequencesof inequality deepening) (iii) by financial constraints impairing reconstruction (e.g., low-income families cannot finance rapidly the reconstruction of their home) and (iv) by technical constraints slowing down reconstruction (e.g., availability of skilled workers, difficulties in equipment and material transportation, difficulties in accommodating workers).

Physical and thermodynamic constraints

There is no lower bound to the energy required to move air through an absorber. The energy required to move air can be made arbitrarily low if the speed of air through the absorber approaches zero. However, there is a strong trade-off between this energy cost and the capital cost of the absorber. As the flow velocity approaches zero, the rate of capture per unit absorber surface will also approach zero so while energy costs approach zero, the amortized cost of capital will approach infinity. This is because each unit of absorber structure captures CO2 at a rate that approaches zero yet still has a finite cost for amortizing the capital required for its construction Now, consider the comparison between capturing CO2 from the air and from the exhaust stream of a coal-fired power plant assuming that the CO2 is to be delivered in compressed form suitable forpipeline transportat a pressure of 150 bar.

Coastal Wetlands And Marshes

Several dozen or more types of mangroves are known, occurring on many coasts of North America, Africa, south America, India, southeast Asia, and elsewhere around the Pacific. mangroves prefer protected, low-energy coasts such as estuaries, lagoons, and back-barrier areas. mangroves develop extensive root systems and propagate by dropping seeds into the water, where they take root and spread. mangrove stands have also been known to be uprooted by storms, float to another location, and take root in the new setting.

History Of Oil Consumption

Conservation suddenly became the watchword of the day. Americans flocked to buy new, smaller automobiles, and a national campaign to keep thermostats lower had some success. Americans grumbled at the sudden onset of austerity, but throughout the mid-1970s, energy conservation and the exploration of alternative energy sources remained a national priority. Americanoil consumptionremained steady, at about 9 million barrels per day, in the 1970s, and some milder winters (those of 1975, 1976, and 1977) provided some respite from the situation. However, the failed presidency of Jimmy Carter (1977-81) proved to be the breaking point, both in terms of the public attitude and public action. Carter came into office wearing cardigan sweaters, and he urged his fellow Americans to do the same. There was some movement toward his position until the Iran Hostage Crisis of 1979-81, which decisively altered American attitudes toward Arab (or in this case Persian) oil-producing nations.

Innovative Energy Strategies forC02 Stabilization

Watts is a Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Tulane University in Louisiana. His current research interests are in climate modeling, the socio-economic and political aspects of energy policy, and the physics of sea ice. His publications on these and other topics have appeared in Climate Change, Journal of Geophysical Research and Nature as well as the mechanical engineering literature. Professor Watts is the author of Keep Your Eye on the Ball Curveballs, Knuckleballs, and Fallacies of Baseball (with A. Terry Bahill W. H. Freeman publishers, 1991, 2000) and is editor of Engineering Response to Global Climate Change (Lewis Publishers, 1997). He is a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and has been an ASME Distinguished Lecturer. Recently, he gave the prestigious George Hawkins Memorial Lecture at Purdue University.

Adaptation Strategies

Even if they cost a little more initially, the savings involved usually pay for themselves via lower energy bills, and the environment benefits as well. Ken Ostrowski, leader of the project report team, says, What the report calls out is the fact that the potential is so substantial for energy efficiency. Not that we will do it, but the potential is just staggering here in the U.S. There is a lot of inertia, and a lot of barriers. The country can do the job with tested approaches and high-potential emerging technologies, but doing the work will require strong, coordinated, economy-wide action that begins in the near future. The report also suggested solutions such as rewriting regulations for the utilities, enabling them to make as much promoting conservation as in selling energy. It also supports the notion of a broad public education program focusing onwastefulenergy consumption.

Land Based Geoengineering Reforestation Afforestation

Reforestation afforestation has already been incorporated into current international efforts to create carbon offsets, along withrenewable energyand energy efficiency programs, and projects that qualify under the Kyoto Protocol Clean Development Mechanism. However, current implementation of forest-basedcarbon sequestration islimited to private enterprise engaged in selling carbon-offsets, and to some nations with commitments under the Kyoto protocol. As a geoengineering strategy, reforestation afforestation would be far more extensively and systematically employed and managed to sustain a larger-scale drawdown - and sustained sequestration of CO2 .

Applied Energy services Inc

Since its founding in 1981, AES has expanded globally with a purpose of bringing safe electric power to people, including those who have never before had access to it. To this end, the company uses the slogan The Power of Being Global. The first AES power plant was built in Texas in 1985 the AES power plant cadre subsequently increased to four U.S. plants by 1989. Three additional plants were constructed in California, Oklahoma, and Pennsylvania. AES is researching cleaner forms of energy, such as wind andsolar power, and other means of environmental protection. Two decades after building its first U.S. power plant, the first AES wind farm was built in Texas, in 2006. The European countries of Bulgaria, France, and the United Kingdom also boast new AESwind farms. AES may also expand into liquefiednatural gas.

Results and Discussion Ngi

The present results should encourage governments for wide installation ofsolar heating and cooling systemsin different applications which will reduce energy consumption ofconventional fuelas proved by the results of this analysis. In addition, wide utilization ofsolar energysystems will help in reducing environmental pollution.

Masonry Walls with Termite Caps Solid Blocks and Filled Block Tops

Builders may construct a foundation wall with solid, filled, or sealed block tops for several reasons, includingtermite-proofing, energy conservation, distribution of weight of the structure, and radon resistance. The NCMA28 recommends that a solid or grouted top course be installed to distribute the loads of joists and beams. Some building codes require solid tops to block hidden termite entry. In spite of this, the block tops in many residences are left open except at anchor points. Houses have been observed in which block tops were generally sealed, but cores were left unsealed at access doors to crawlspaces, around ash pit doors, and other openings. Sealing hollow cores at or near their tops can prevent soil gas from entering the basement, but more importantly might make the building easier to mitigate in the event that it has elevated radon.

Approaches to Fusion Energy

A generic fusion power plant, Figure 8.1(a), consists of a central reaction chamber (the core), surrounded by an approximately 1-m thick blanket that contains lithium. The blanket performs two functions it generates the tritium fuel from neutron interactions with the lithium, and it shields the surrounding structure from neutron bombardment. Penetrations through the blanket must be provided for injecting fuel and energy for either MFE or IFE. These may be from one side as shown, but more generally are from opposite sides or even uniformly distributed around the periphery. Outside the blanket are superconducting magnets for magnetic fusion, and beamlines for inertial fusion. The power plant in Figure 8.1(a) could be spherical or cylindrical. The other major geometry studied is the torus shown in Figure 8.1(b). Many concepts in magnetic fusion have been studied during the last four decades, with a strong emphasis on the tokamak during the last two decades.

Natural Resources Defense council NRDc

NRDC has frequently appeared before the U.S. Supreme Court, and has been involved in federal, state, and local litigation. NRDC was partially responsible for passage of the Clean Water Act, which allowed citizens to sue water polluters directly. Removal of lead from gasoline and the increase of energy efficiency in home appliances have also resulted from NRDC's actions. A 1976 court battle resulted in limitations onwater pollutionfor 24 major industries, and, in 1978, a successful lawsuit cut sulfur dioxide emissions by a million tons annually. Legal action, in 1984, forced the U.S. Department of Energy's nuclear weapons facilities to comply with environmental laws. Two other lawsuits forced major corporations, Bethlehem Steel in 1987, and ARCO and Texaco in 1993, to pay stiff fines for water pollution.

Trexler and Associates Inc

Services provided by TC+ES include achieving GHG neutrality, building ghg competitive advantage, customized price curve development, GHG inventory support, internal cost curve development, mitigation portfolio development, power plant siting and offset strategies, project design document (pdd) services, risk and opportunity assessment, and Sarbanes-Oxley compliance.

Global water use trends Ever increasing

Energy production is also a major water issue. However, the linkages are not always obvious. Reservoirs would seem to be built for energy generation, but merely 25 per cent of the world's dams produce hydropower. Europe uses 75 per cent of its hydropower potential, while Africa has developed only 7 per cent, a figure so low that raising it is viewed by some to be a cornerstone of Africa's future development (UN, 2006). Still, only about 2.2 per cent of the total primary energy supply by source (in 2002) comes from hydropower, according tothe International Energy Agency(IEA), and even if there is a dramatic increase in hydropower production, the overall share will remain marginal.

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